Legal Dictionary

A serious criminal offence involving penetration of a woman's body without her free and informed consent — defined with seven specific grounds of lack of consent.

Ratio decidendi (Latin: 'the reason for deciding') is the part of a judgment that constitutes binding precedent. Distinguished from obiter dicta (passing observations that are not necessary to the decision), the ratio is the legal principle without which the decision would have been different. Identifying the ratio of a case is a complex analytical task — particularly in cases decided by multiple judges with different reasoning. Indian courts under Article 141 of the Constitution are bound by the law declared by the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court's ratio in any case binds all courts in India; High Court ratios bind all courts within their jurisdiction.

Central bank and regulator of monetary policy.

Reopening of completed assessment on discovery of new information.

A receiver under Order XL of the CPC is appointed by the court when: (a) it appears necessary for the conservation of the disputed property; (b) there is a danger of the property being dissipated, wasted, or destroyed during the pendency of the suit; or (c) neither party can be trusted with the management of the property during litigation. The receiver is an officer of the court — they manage the property in the court's name, can collect rents and profits, and must account to the court. The receiver's appointment supersedes the parties' rights of possession — neither party can deal with the property without the court's permission.

Reciprocal commitment (or mutual obligation) is the defining feature of bilateral contracts and certain criminal law doctrines. In contract law, it refers to promises which form consideration for each other (Section 2(f) ICA) — the reciprocal obligations of a sale, lease, employment, or any bilateral contract. In criminal law, 'reciprocal commitment' sometimes describes joint obligations in criminal conspiracies — each conspirator's agreement is premised on the others' participation. The concept is also relevant in peace agreements and plea bargaining — where the prosecution and accused have reciprocal obligations (prosecution reduces charges, accused pleads guilty).

Correction of apparent mistake in order.

Prospectus without complete price and number of shares.

Reddendo singula singulis (Latin: 'referring each to each' or 'rendering each to each') is the distributive rule of statutory interpretation. Where a statute refers to several subjects and then provides several qualifications, the qualifications are distributed to the subjects to which they most naturally apply — not applied to all subjects collectively. The classic example: 'Shooting or stabbing with a knife or revolver' — the rule distributes the weapon to the appropriate act: shooting with a revolver; stabbing with a knife. Applying the rule avoids the awkwardness of 'stabbing with a revolver' or 'shooting with a knife.'

Reduction of capital under Section 66 CA 2013 requires: (a) a special resolution; (b) confirmation by the National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT). The company files a petition before the NCLT; the Tribunal considers objections from creditors (if any); and if satisfied that no creditor is prejudiced, confirms the reduction. Common scenarios: (a) writing off losses that eroded paid-up capital (capital that was lost); (b) returning surplus capital to shareholders (capital not needed for business); (c) as part of a scheme of arrangement or restructuring. Once confirmed by NCLT, the company files the order with the Registrar of Companies. Private companies may now also reduce capital by special resolution without NCLT confirmation (Section 66 Proviso — added by 2020 amendment).

Reference is the statutory mechanism by which a subordinate court, when confronted with a legal question it feels ill-equipped to decide, refers that question to a higher court for authoritative determination. Under CPC Section 113, a civil court may state a case and refer it to the High Court if it is doubtful as to the law. Under BNSS Section 395 (criminal reference), a Sessions Court or Magistrate may, before deciding, refer the case to the High Court if it involves a substantial question of law. The High Court decides the question and returns the case to the lower court for disposal in accordance with that opinion.

Compulsory registration of certain documents involving immovable property is required under the Registration Act, 1908 — an unregistered document that requires registration is inadmissible as evidence of the transaction.

Regular bail is the standard form of bail granted after a person has been arrested. Unlike anticipatory bail (pre-arrest) or default bail (automatic on timeline expiry), regular bail is applied for after arrest and is governed by BNSS Section 478 (bailable offences) and BNSS Section 480 (non-bailable offences). In bailable offences, regular bail is a right; in non-bailable offences, it is at the court's discretion. The accused applies before the Magistrate or Sessions Court depending on where the case is pending.

Transaction with directors, relatives or associated entities.

Facts are relevant when they are logically connected to the facts in issue — relevancy is the gateway to admissibility of evidence in Indian courts.

Sending accused to police or judicial custody.

Reduction in sentence period by government.

Liability only for reasonably foreseeable damage.

One person sues for numerous persons with same interest.

India is a 'Republic' because its head of state — the President — is elected (indirectly, by an electoral college of elected representatives) for a fixed term (5 years, Article 56) and is removable (by impeachment, Article 61). This contrasts with a monarchy where the head of state is hereditary and holds office for life. The Republic concept also implies that public power is a trust held for the public good ('res publica' — public thing), not the private property of a ruler. India became a Republic on January 26, 1950 — celebrated as Republic Day — when the Constitution came into force, replacing the constitutional monarchy of the British Crown.